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Will Ife Begin Again When the Universe Dies

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Future scenario bold that the expansion of the universe may proceed forever, or achieve a signal at which it begins to contract.

Most observations suggest that the expansion of the universe volition continue forever. If then, then a pop theory is that the universe volition cool as information technology expands, eventually becoming too cold to sustain life. For this reason, this future scenario once popularly called "Oestrus Death" is now known as the "Big Chill" or "Big Freeze".[1] [2]

If dark energy—represented by the cosmological abiding, a constant free energy density filling space homogeneously,[iii] or scalar fields, such as quintessence or moduli, dynamic quantities whose energy density can vary in time and space—accelerates the expansion of the universe, so the space between clusters of galaxies will grow at an increasing rate. Redshift will stretch ancient, incoming photons (even gamma rays) to undetectably long wavelengths and low energies.[4] Stars are expected to course normally for 1012 to 1014 (one–100 trillion) years, but eventually the supply of gas needed for star germination will exist exhausted. As existing stars run out of fuel and cease to polish, the universe will slowly and inexorably abound darker.[5] [six] According to theories that predict proton decay, the stellar remnants left behind will disappear, leaving backside only black holes, which themselves eventually disappear every bit they emit Hawking radiation.[7] Ultimately, if the universe reaches thermodynamic equilibrium, a state in which the temperature approaches a uniform value, no farther piece of work volition be possible, resulting in a concluding heat death of the universe.[8]

Cosmology [edit]

Infinite expansion does not determine the overall spatial curvature of the universe. It tin be open (with negative spatial curvature), apartment, or airtight (positive spatial curvature), although if it is closed, sufficient dark energy must be present to counteract the gravitational forces or else the universe will end in a Big Crunch.[ix]

Observations of the cosmic background radiation by the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe and the Planck mission suggest that the universe is spatially flat and has a meaning amount of dark energy.[10] [eleven] In this case, the universe should continue to expand at an accelerating charge per unit. The acceleration of the universe'south expansion has as well been confirmed by observations of distant supernovae.[ix] If, as in the concordance model of physical cosmology (Lambda-cold dark matter or ΛCDM), dark energy is in the class of a cosmological constant, the expansion will eventually become exponential, with the size of the universe doubling at a constant rate.

If the theory of aggrandizement is true, the universe went through an episode dominated by a different form of dark energy in the first moments of the Large Blindside; simply aggrandizement ended, indicating an equation of state much more than complicated than those causeless so far for nowadays-day dark free energy. It is possible that the dark energy equation of state could modify again resulting in an consequence that would have consequences which are extremely difficult to parametrize or predict.[ citation needed ]

Future history [edit]

In the 1970s, the time to come of an expanding universe was studied past the astrophysicist Jamal Islam[12] and the physicist Freeman Dyson.[13] Then, in their 1999 book The Five Ages of the Universe, the astrophysicists Fred Adams and Gregory Laughlin divided the past and future history of an expanding universe into v eras. The first, the Primordial Era, is the fourth dimension in the past just after the Big Blindside when stars had not yet formed. The 2nd, the Stelliferous Era, includes the present day and all of the stars and galaxies now seen. It is the time during which stars form from collapsing clouds of gas. In the subsequent Degenerate Era, the stars will take burnt out, leaving all stellar-mass objects as stellar remnants—white dwarfs, neutron stars, and blackness holes. In the Black Hole Era, white dwarfs, neutron stars, and other smaller astronomical objects have been destroyed by proton decay, leaving but blackness holes. Finally, in the Dark Era, even black holes have disappeared, leaving only a dilute gas of photons and leptons.[fourteen]

This futurity history and the timeline below assume the continued expansion of the universe. If infinite in the universe begins to contract, subsequent events in the timeline may non occur considering the Big Crunch, the collapse of the universe into a hot, dense state similar to that afterwards the Large Bang, will supervene.[xiv] [15]

Timeline [edit]

The Stelliferous Era [edit]

From the present to near x 14 (100 trillion) years after the Big Blindside

The appreciable universe is currently one.38×10 10 (13.8 billion) years one-time.[16] This time is in the Stelliferous Era. Almost 155 million years after the Big Bang, the start star formed. Since then, stars have formed by the collapse of minor, dense core regions in big, common cold molecular clouds of hydrogen gas. At first, this produces a protostar, which is hot and vivid because of energy generated by gravitational wrinkle. Later on the protostar contracts for a while, its core could become hot enough to fuse hydrogen, if it exceeds critical mass, a process called 'stellar ignition', and its lifetime as a star will properly begin.[14]

Stars of very low mass will somewhen exhaust all their fusible hydrogen and then become helium white dwarfs.[17] Stars of low to medium mass, such as our ain sun, will expel some of their mass as a planetary nebula and eventually become white dwarfs; more massive stars volition explode in a cadre-collapse supernova, leaving behind neutron stars or black holes.[18] In any example, although some of the star's matter may be returned to the interstellar medium, a degenerate remnant will be left behind whose mass is not returned to the interstellar medium. Therefore, the supply of gas available for star germination is steadily being exhausted.

Galaxy Galaxy and the Andromeda Galaxy merge into i [edit]

4–8 billion years from now (17.8 – 21.8 billion years afterward the Large Bang)

The Andromeda Galaxy is currently approximately ii.5 one thousand thousand lite years abroad from our galaxy, the Milky way Galaxy, and they are moving towards each other at approximately 300 kilometers (186 miles) per second. Approximately 5 billion years from now, or 19 billion years afterwards the Large Bang, the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy volition collide with one another and merge into one large galaxy based on current evidence (run across, Andromeda–Milky Way standoff. Up until 2012, at that place was no way to ostend whether the possible collision was going to happen or not.[19] In 2012, researchers came to the conclusion that the collision is definite later on using the Hubble Infinite Telescope between 2002 and 2010 to rail the motion of Andromeda.[20] This results in the formation of Milkdromeda (as well known as Milkomeda).

22 billion years in the future is the primeval possible end of the Universe in the Big Rip scenario, assuming a model of nighttime energy with w = −ane.5.[21] [22]

Imitation vacuum disuse may occur in xx to 30 billion years if the Higgs field is metastable.[23] [24] [25]

Coalescence of Local Group and galaxies exterior the Local Supercluster are no longer accessible [edit]

ten xi (100 billion) to 10 12 (i trillion) years

The galaxies in the Local Group, the cluster of galaxies which includes the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy, are gravitationally bound to each other. It is expected that betwixt 10 11 (100 billion) and 10 12 (1 trillion) years from now, their orbits volition disuse and the entire Local Grouping will merge into one large galaxy.[v]

Assuming that nighttime energy continues to brand the universe expand at an accelerating charge per unit, in about 150 billion years all galaxies outside the Local Supercluster will pass backside the cosmological horizon. Information technology will so be incommunicable for events in the Local Supercluster to affect other galaxies. Similarly, it will be impossible for events after 150 billion years, as seen by observers in distant galaxies, to affect events in the Local Supercluster.[iv] Yet, an observer in the Local Supercluster will proceed to see afar galaxies, but events they observe will go exponentially more redshifted as the galaxy approaches the horizon until time in the afar galaxy seems to stop. The observer in the Local Supercluster never observes events afterwards 150 billion years in their local time, and somewhen all calorie-free and background radiations lying outside the Local Supercluster will appear to blink out every bit light becomes so redshifted that its wavelength has become longer than the concrete diameter of the horizon.

Technically, it will have an infinitely long time for all causal interaction between the Local Supercluster and this light to finish. Yet, due to the redshifting explained to a higher place, the lite will not necessarily exist observed for an infinite corporeality of time, and after 150 billion years, no new causal interaction volition be observed.

Therefore, after 150 billion years, intergalactic transportation and advice beyond the Local Supercluster becomes causally impossible.

Luminosities of galaxies begin to diminish [edit]

eight×10 11 (800 billion) years

8×x 11 (800 billion) years from now, the luminosities of the different galaxies, approximately similar until and then to the current ones thanks to the increasing luminosity of the remaining stars as they age, volition start to decrease, as the less massive red dwarf stars begin to die as white dwarfs.[26]

Galaxies outside the Local Supercluster are no longer detectable [edit]

2×10 12 (2 trillion) years

two×10 12 (two trillion) years from now, all galaxies outside the Local Supercluster volition be redshifted to such an extent that even gamma rays they emit will accept wavelengths longer than the size of the observable universe of the time. Therefore, these galaxies will no longer be detectable in any way.[iv]

Degenerate Era [edit]

From ten xiv (100 trillion) to x xl (ten duodecillion) years

By 10 14 (100 trillion) years from now, star formation will end,[5] leaving all stellar objects in the form of degenerate remnants. If protons practice not decay, stellar-mass objects will disappear more slowly, making this era last longer.

Star formation ceases [edit]

1012–fourteen (1–100 trillion) years

By 10 14 (100 trillion) years from now, star germination will end. This menses, known equally the "Degenerate Era", will last until the degenerate remnants finally decay.[27] The least massive stars take the longest to exhaust their hydrogen fuel (meet stellar evolution). Thus, the longest living stars in the universe are depression-mass red dwarfs, with a mass of about 0.08 solar masses (M ☉), which have a lifetime of over 10 13 (ten trillion) years.[28] Coincidentally, this is comparable to the length of fourth dimension over which star formation takes place.[5] Once star formation ends and the to the lowest degree massive red dwarfs exhaust their fuel, nuclear fusion will cease. The low-mass cherry-red dwarfs will cool and become black dwarfs.[17] The just objects remaining with more than planetary mass will exist dark-brown dwarfs, with mass less than 0.08G ☉, and degenerate remnants; white dwarfs, produced by stars with initial masses between well-nigh 0.08 and 8 solar masses; and neutron stars and black holes, produced past stars with initial masses over 8M ☉. Nigh of the mass of this drove, approximately xc%, volition be in the form of white dwarfs.[6] In the absence of any energy source, all of these formerly luminous bodies volition cool and get faint.

The universe will get extremely dark after the concluding stars fire out. Even and so, in that location tin still exist occasional light in the universe. One of the ways the universe can be illuminated is if two carbon–oxygen white dwarfs with a combined mass of more than the Chandrasekhar limit of about 1.4 solar masses happen to merge. The resulting object volition then undergo runaway thermonuclear fusion, producing a Type Ia supernova and dispelling the darkness of the Degenerate Era for a few weeks. Neutron stars could too collide, forming even brighter supernovae and dispelling upward to 6 solar masses of degenerate gas into the interstellar medium. The resulting matter from these supernovae could potentially create new stars.[29] [xxx] If the combined mass is not above the Chandrasekhar limit but is larger than the minimum mass to fuse carbon (most 0.9M ☉), a carbon star could be produced, with a lifetime of effectually 10 6 (ane million) years.[14] Also, if ii helium white dwarfs with a combined mass of at to the lowest degree 0.3M ☉ collide, a helium star may be produced, with a lifetime of a few hundred 1000000 years.[fourteen] Finally dark-brown dwarfs can form new stars colliding with each other to form a red dwarf star, that tin can survive for 10 thirteen (10 trillion) years,[28] [29] or accreting gas at very boring rates from the remaining interstellar medium until they have enough mass to start hydrogen burning equally red dwarfs too. This process, at to the lowest degree on white dwarfs, could induce Type Ia supernovae also.[31]

Planets fall or are flung from orbits past a close run across with another star [edit]

10 15 (1 quadrillion) years

Over time, the orbits of planets will disuse due to gravitational radiations, or planets will be ejected from their local systems by gravitational perturbations caused by encounters with some other stellar remnant.[32]

Stellar remnants escape galaxies or fall into black holes [edit]

x 19 to x xx (10 to 100 quintillion) years

Over time, objects in a galaxy exchange kinetic energy in a process called dynamical relaxation, making their velocity distribution approach the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution.[33] Dynamical relaxation can keep either by shut encounters of ii stars or by less violent but more frequent afar encounters.[34] In the case of a shut see, two brown dwarfs or stellar remnants will pass shut to each other. When this happens, the trajectories of the objects involved in the close come across change slightly, in such a way that their kinetic energies are more nearly equal than before. After a large number of encounters, then, lighter objects tend to gain speed while the heavier objects lose it.[14]

Because of dynamical relaxation, some objects will proceeds just enough free energy to reach galactic escape velocity and depart the milky way, leaving behind a smaller, denser galaxy. Since encounters are more than frequent in this denser galaxy, the process so accelerates. The end issue is that most objects (90% to 99%) are ejected from the galaxy, leaving a small fraction (peradventure 1% to ten%) which fall into the central supermassive blackness pigsty.[five] [14] It has been suggested that the matter of the fallen remnants will course an accretion disk around it that will create a quasar, as long every bit enough matter is present there.[35]

Possible ionization of matter [edit]

>10 23 years from now

In an expanding universe with decreasing density and non-null cosmological constant, matter density would reach naught, resulting in virtually matter except black dwarfs, neutron stars, black holes, and planets ionizing and dissipating at thermal equilibrium.[36]

Future with proton decay [edit]

The following timeline assumes that protons exercise disuse.

Chance: 10 32 (100 nonillion) – 10 42 years (ane tredecillion)

The subsequent development of the universe depends on the possibility and charge per unit of proton disuse. Experimental evidence shows that if the proton is unstable, it has a one-half-life of at to the lowest degree 10 35 years.[37] Some of the Grand Unified theories (GUTs) predict long-term proton instability between 10 32 and x 38 years, with the upper bound on standard (not-supersymmetry) proton disuse at 1.4×10 36 years and an overall upper limit maximum for whatsoever proton decay (including supersymmetry models) at half-dozen×10 42 years.[38] [39] Recent research showing proton lifetime (if unstable) at or exceeding 10 36 –10 37 year range rules out simpler GUTs and nearly non-supersymmetry models.

Nucleons outset to decay [edit]

Neutrons leap into nuclei are also suspected to decay with a half-life comparable to that of protons. Planets (substellar objects) would decay in a simple cascade procedure from heavier elements to pure hydrogen while radiating energy.[xl]

If the proton does not decay at all, so stellar objects would still disappear, but more slowly. See Future without proton disuse beneath.

Shorter or longer proton one-half-lives will accelerate or decelerate the process. This means that afterwards 10 40 years (the maximum proton half-life used by Adams & Laughlin (1997)), one-half of all baryonic thing will have been converted into gamma ray photons and leptons through proton disuse.

All nucleons decay [edit]

ten 43 (ten tredecillion) years

Given our assumed half-life of the proton, nucleons (protons and bound neutrons) will have undergone roughly i,000 one-half-lives past the fourth dimension the universe is 10 43 years sometime. This means that there will be roughly 0.5one,000 (approximately x−301) equally many nucleons; as there are an estimated 10 lxxx protons currently in the universe,[41] none will remain at the end of the Degenerate Age. Finer, all baryonic affair volition accept been changed into photons and leptons. Some models predict the formation of stable positronium atoms with diameters greater than the observable universe's electric current diameter (roughly vi · 10 34 metres)[42] in x 98 years, and that these will in turn decay to gamma radiation in 10 176 years.[5] [vi]

The supermassive black holes are all that remain of galaxies once all protons disuse, but fifty-fifty these giants are not immortal.

If protons decay on higher-order nuclear processes [edit]

Chance: 10 76 to 10 220 years

If the proton does not disuse according to the theories described above, so the Degenerate Era will last longer, and will overlap or surpass the Black Hole Era. On a time scale of ten 65 years solid matter is theorized to potentially rearrange its atoms and molecules via quantum tunneling, and may acquit as liquid and become smooth spheres due to diffusion and gravity.[thirteen] Degenerate stellar objects can potentially still experience proton decay, for case via processes involving the Adler–Bong–Jackiw bibelot, virtual black holes, or higher-dimension supersymmetry possibly with a half-life of under 10 220 years.[v]

>ten 145 years from now

2018 guess of Standard Model lifetime before collapse of a fake vacuum; 95% conviction interval is 1065 to 10725 years due in function to uncertainty near the top quark mass.[43]

>10 200 years from now

Although protons are stable in standard model physics, a quantum anomaly may exist on the electroweak level, which tin cause groups of baryons (protons and neutrons) to annihilate into antileptons via the sphaleron transition.[44] Such baryon/lepton violations have a number of 3 and tin but occur in multiples or groups of three baryons, which tin restrict or prohibit such events. No experimental evidence of sphalerons has yet been observed at low energy levels, though they are believed to occur regularly at high energies and temperatures.

Black Hole Era [edit]

10 43 (x tredecillion) years to approximately 10 100 (1 googol) years, upwardly to 10 110 years for the largest supermassive blackness holes

After ten 43  years, black holes will boss the universe. They volition slowly evaporate via Hawking radiation.[5] A black hole with a mass of effectually 1M ☉ will vanish in around 2×10 64 years. As the lifetime of a black hole is proportional to the cube of its mass, more massive black holes take longer to decay. A supermassive black hole with a mass of 10 11 (100 billion) M ☉ will evaporate in around 2×10 93 years.[45]

The largest black holes in the universe are predicted to continue to grow. Larger blackness holes of upwardly to x 14 (100 trillion) M ☉ may course during the collapse of superclusters of galaxies. Fifty-fifty these would evaporate over a timescale of ten 109 [46] to x 110 years.

Hawking radiations has a thermal spectrum. During most of a black hole'due south lifetime, the radiation has a low temperature and is mainly in the form of massless particles such as photons and hypothetical gravitons. As the black pigsty's mass decreases, its temperature increases, becoming comparable to the Sun's by the time the black hole mass has decreased to x xix kilograms. The hole and so provides a temporary source of low-cal during the general darkness of the Black Pigsty Era. During the last stages of its evaporation, a black pigsty will emit not only massless particles, but too heavier particles, such as electrons, positrons, protons, and antiprotons.[xiv]

Nighttime Era and Photon Age [edit]

From ten 100 years (10 duotrigintillion years or one googol years)

After all the blackness holes take evaporated (and after all the ordinary affair made of protons has disintegrated, if protons are unstable), the universe will be nearly empty. Photons, baryons, neutrinos, electrons, and positrons will fly from place to place, hardly ever encountering each other. Gravitationally, the universe will exist dominated past night thing, electrons, and positrons (non protons).[47]

Past this era, with but very diffuse matter remaining, activeness in the universe will have tailed off dramatically (compared with previous eras), with very low energy levels and very big time scales. Electrons and positrons drifting through infinite volition encounter one another and occasionally form positronium atoms. These structures are unstable, however, and their constituent particles must somewhen annihilate. However, nigh electrons and positrons volition remain unbound.[48] Other low-level annihilation events volition also accept place, admitting very slowly. The universe now reaches an extremely low-free energy state.

Future without proton decay [edit]

If the protons practise not decay, stellar-mass objects will still get blackness holes, but more slowly. The post-obit timeline assumes that proton decay does not take identify.

10 139 years from at present

2018 guess of Standard Model lifetime earlier collapse of a fake vacuum; 95% confidence interval is 1058 to 10241 years due in function to uncertainty almost the tiptop quark mass.[43]

Degenerate Era [edit]

Matter decays into iron [edit]

10 1100 to 10 32000 years from now

In 10 1500 years, cold fusion occurring via breakthrough tunneling should brand the light nuclei in stellar-mass objects fuse into iron-56 nuclei (see isotopes of iron). Fission and alpha particle emission should make heavy nuclei also decay to iron, leaving stellar-mass objects equally cold spheres of iron, chosen iron stars.[13] Earlier this happens, in some black dwarfs the process is expected to lower their Chandrasekhar limit resulting in a supernova in 10 1100 years. Non-degenerate silicon has been calculated to tunnel to iron in approximately ten 32000 years.[49]

Black Pigsty Era [edit]

Collapse of iron stars to black holes [edit]

1010 30 to 1010 105 years from at present

Quantum tunneling should also turn large objects into black holes, which (on these timescales) volition instantaneously evaporate into subatomic particles. Depending on the assumptions made, the fourth dimension this takes to happen tin can be calculated as from 1010 26 years to 1010 76 years. Quantum tunneling may as well make atomic number 26 stars collapse into neutron stars in around 1010 76 years.[13]

Dark Era (without proton decay) [edit]

10x 105 to 1010 120 years from now

With black holes having evaporated, all baryonic matter will have at present rust-covered into subatomic particles (electrons, neutrons, protons, and quarks). The universe is now an well-nigh pure vacuum (possibly accompanied with the presence of a simulated vacuum). The expansion of the universe slowly cools it downwards to absolute zero.[ citation needed ]

Beyond [edit]

Beyond 10 2500 years if proton decay occurs, or 1010 76 years without proton decay

It is possible that a Big Rip event may occur far off into the hereafter.[50] [51] This singularity would take identify at a finite scale factor.

If the current vacuum state is a imitation vacuum, the vacuum may disuse into a lower-energy country.[52]

Presumably, extreme depression-energy states imply that localized breakthrough events go major macroscopic phenomena rather than negligible microscopic events because the smallest perturbations make the biggest difference in this era, so at that place is no telling what may happen to infinite or time. It is perceived that the laws of "macro-physics" will break down, and the laws of quantum physics will prevail.[8]

The universe could mayhap avoid eternal heat death through random quantum tunneling and quantum fluctuations, given the non-zero probability of producing a new Large Blindside in roughly x1010 56 years.[53]

Over an infinite corporeality of fourth dimension, in that location could exist a spontaneous entropy decrease, by a Poincaré recurrence or through thermal fluctuations (see besides fluctuation theorem).[54] [55] [56]

Massive black dwarfs could as well potentially explode into supernovae after up to 1032000  years, bold protons exercise not decay.[57]

The possibilities above are based on a unproblematic grade of dark energy. However, the physics of dark energy are still a very active area of inquiry, and the actual form of nighttime energy could exist much more complex. For example, during inflation dark energy affected the universe very differently than it does today, so it is possible that dark energy could trigger another inflationary period in the hereafter. Until dark free energy is improve understood, its possible furnishings are extremely difficult to predict or parametrize.

Graphical timeline [edit]

Logarithmic scale

See also [edit]

  • Big Bounce – Hypothetical cosmological model for the origin of the known universe
  • Chronology of the universe – History and time to come of the universe
  • Cyclic model
  • Dyson'southward eternal intelligence – Hypothetical concept in astrophysics
  • Terminal anthropic principle
  • Graphical timeline of the Stelliferous Era
  • Graphical timeline of the Big Bang – Logarithmic chronology of the consequence that began the Universe
  • Graphical timeline from Big Bang to Heat Death. This timeline uses the double-logarithmic calibration for comparing with the graphical timeline included in this article.
  • Graphical timeline of the universe – Visual timeline of the universe. This timeline uses the more intuitive linear time, for comparison with this article.
  • Timeline of the Big Bang
  • Timeline of the far future – Scientific projections regarding the far future
  • The Last Question – A short story past Isaac Asimov which considers the inevitable oncome of rut death in the universe and how it may be reversed.
  • Ultimate fate of the universe – Theories most the end of the universe

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_of_an_expanding_universe

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